AS 201 The Tokugawa Order

The Three Great Unifiers:

1. Oda Nobunaga (1523-1582) scored a decisive victory over a powerful rival that outnumbered Oda's forces approximately ten to one. Oda was victorious because of superior weapons and innovative tactics. He was, for example, the first daimyō to take firearms seriously and employ large numbers of foot soldiers firing muskets in rotating groups. By 1568, he had conquered the area around the capital of Kyōto and had taken up residence there. At that point, he faced his greatest opponents: powerful Buddhist temples.

We saw that Buddhist temples were a major political and military presence as early as the late Heian period. Throughout the Muromachi period, some temples or sects of Buddhism became so powerful that they controlled entire provinces and commanded hundreds of thousands of soldiers. After several costly campaigns, Oda managed to subdue the major Buddhist organizations in the Kyōto area. Realizing the potential power of those motivated by religion (as opposed to rational calculations of personal, worldly gain), Oda ordered the slaughter of everyone associated with the defeated temples, children included.

In the meantime, the last Ashikaga shōgun, Yoshiaki, became nervous over Oda's growing power. In 1573, he fled Kyōto to seek the aid of daimyō opposed to Oda. By this time, however, nobody of any significance took the Ashikaga shōguns seriously, and Yoshiaki lived out the rest of his days in obscurity. Throughout the 1570s, Oda employed skillful diplomacy to get various daimyō to fight each other. In such cases, even the victors would normally be in a weakened state vis-à-vis Oda's forces. By 1581, after defeating a major daimyō rival and another powerful Buddhist organization, Oda had emerged as the most powerful person in Japan. Large areas of Japan still remained outside his control, but the momentum was clearly in his favor.

Oda once had the heads of several recently defeated opponents dipped in molten gold. He then sent them as "gifts" to potential rivals.

His official motto, inscribed on the seal with which he stamped documents, was tenka fubu 天下布武 "overspreading all under heaven with military might." Oda's was an age when raw power and ambition were the keys to success.

In 1582, a fire all around his quarters awakened Oda in the middle of the night. A subordinate general had betrayed him. Seeing no way out of the flames, he committed suicide.

2. Another of his generals, Toyotomi Hideyoshi(1536-1598), who, at the time of Oda's death, was busy fighting in the north of Japan, rushed back to Kyōto upon hearing the news. He quickly killed Oda's betrayer and, able to take the "moral" high ground as avenger of his lord's death, took over command of Oda's organization.

Hideyoshi finished the work Oda had started. After several military campaigns, he had subdued all of Japan by 1585. The only possible exception was a daimyō named Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616), another of Oda's generals. Hideyoshi worked out a truce with Ieyasu under which Ieyasu supported Hideyoshi but also received a small empire consisting of eight provinces. While Hideyoshi was alive, there was no open conflict between he and Ieyasu, but Ieyasu remained a separate power outside of Hideyoshi's complete control.

Hideyoshi reunified Japan after over a century of civil war and political instability. As ruler he enacted several important policies that helped shape the structure of society and government for centuries after his death. Hideyoshi was himself of peasant origin, but he took steps to make sure that no peasant would again rise to fame and power as a general.

a. He decreed a formal, rigid division between warriors (commonly known by the Japanese term samurai) and everyone else ("commoners"). This decree was the origin of the samurai class as a clearly defined, legal entity. Those who were part-time warriors and part-time farmers or merchants had to choose between military or civilian life. After separating the warriors from the rest of society, Hideyoshi then collected all offensive weapons (e.g., long swords, certain types of firearms) from the commoners in what is called the "Sword Hunt" Ostensibly, he had the weapons collected to be melted down and made into a huge Buddha image. Religious piety, however, was not the real reason. As you can imagine, it is much easier to collect taxes from a disarmed populace.

b. He also implemented an efficient taxation system based on knowing how much everyone actually had. To this end, Hideyoshi ordered a massive cadastral survey. Teams of officials went out with poles and other measuring devices in hand and measured every foot of farmland. They also assessed the quality of each plot of land and its expected productivity. The survey teams compiled all this information, which took years to gather completely, into detailed registers. These records remained the basis of taxation in many parts of Japan until the middle of the nineteenth century.

In addition to the policies mentioned above, Hideyoshi launched a massive invasion of Korea in 1592. His interest was less in Korea itself than in conquering Ming China. Historians sometimes debate Hideyoshi's motivation for the invasion. Some, for example, say the primary reason was to find an outlet for the energies of the many warriors in Japan, whose restlessness might have caused trouble at home. Others point out that Hideyoshi had even made plans for the conquest of India. Therefore, his own personal megalomania was the primary motivating force.

3. Tokugawa Ieyasu (1542-1616), the third unifier, was another of Oda's generals. He was also a shrewd politician and institution builder. In the course of capitalizing on his victory, Ieyasu established a strong and stable bakufu that ruled Japan until the 1860s. The period from 1603, the date Ieyasu formally took the title of shōgun, until the last shōgun's resignation in 1867, is known as the Tokugawa period or Edo period.

The Battle of Sekigahara 1600

After Hideyoshi's death in 1598, there was a Council of Five Elders--among whom Ieyasu was the largest and most powerful--charged with functioning as a regency until Hideyori, Hideyoshi's son (5 yrs old), comes of age. Wouldn't happen.

A split soon occurred between the Eastern Army led by Tokugawa Ieyasu and the Western Army led by Ishida Mitsunari. Two huge armies numbering several hundred thousand troops on each side, and consisting of Daimyo Allies on each side, clashed in the Battle of Sekigahara; Tokugawa Ieyasu won the day and he became the largest single Daimyo in all Japan.

All the other Daimyo became his vassals; he is the defacto political ruler of all Japan....And yet, Japan is still divided into 250 feudal domains or Han which are theoretically autonomous.

Each Daimyo still rules directly over his own Han; that is why we call it a "Hybrid" system, or the Baku-Han system.

The first half of the equation

--Baku for the Bakufu = "tent" or "military" government--represents central authority.

--The second half was the Han or "Feudal Domains," which stands for local autonomy.

Paradoxical? Yes. Sometimes it is referred to as "centralized feudalism" which is kind of an oxymoron because the feudalism part implies de-centralization and the rise of regional and local power centers. In other words, Feudalism is synonymous with a lack of centralized authority!

But there were some mitigating factors. Tokugawa Iyeasu's han or fief was huge, far outstrippiong any other single Daimyo in all of Japan. His lands were worth about 4.1 million koku (a measure of rice--about 5 bushels). Making it about 4 x larger than his closest opponent.

So Ieyasu is kind of a "Super Daimyo." But his authority is far from absolute; he is not like a European King; he does not claim nor command all the land in his realm directly. He exercises quite a bit of control, but only indirectly. Technically, each of the approximately 250 Feudal Lords or "Daimyo" controls his own domain or han.

In 1603, Ieyasu gets the Imperial Court to grant him the title of Shogun. This helps. It is a "national" title but it is granted by the emperor.

He retires in 1605 in favor of his son Hidetada but still rules; so he guarantees avoidance of a "crisis of succession." Smart.

But the key to everything is his strong VASSAL CONTROL system. How can these 250 Daimyo be regulated?

The Sengoku jidai (戦国時代) or "Warring States Period" was identified with Gekokujo (下克上) or the phenomenon of "those below overthrowing those above."　How can this very disruptive and destabilizing process be controlled?

Hideyoshi made an important first step:

--Removing samurai and their arms from the Land; --combined with performing cadastral surveys, assigning income to removed samurai now living in castle towns, and tying peasant families to the land they farmed.

 

Ieyasu completes the process by:

1. Exercising the Right to transfer Daimyo from one domain to another; awarding land to allies; the capability to strip Daimyo of some or all of lands. In first 50 years of Tokugawa rule in fact some 213 Daimyo were stripped of part or all of their land; some 281 Daimyo transferred.

2. Castle and road building campaigns: Daimyo had to contribute materials and labor so it strengthens Tokugawa, while weakening his enemies financially. Costly.

3. Oaths of Fealty 1611--pledge to respect laws established by the bakufu. So Daimyo or Fedual Lords accept limitations on their power.

4.Military House Codes (1615)

--Article 1: Study of Literature (文) and the Martial Arts (武) must both be cultivated. Reminds us of Zhou Kings Wen (文) and Wu (武). But note how Bun, Literature comes first. It is Peacetime now, my brothers! So that is the priority.

--This will be a regime of Laws: "Law is the foundation of social order. Reason may be violated in the name of Law, but Law may not be violated in the name of reason. Anyone who violates the law must be severely punished." Shades of Qin Emperor and Legalism!

--Castles may be repaired but new construction is forbidden.

--Marriages between Daimyo houses cannot be contracted without prior bakufu approval.

--To form a factional alliance through marriage is the root of treason.

--The practice of Sankin-kotai or Alternate Attendance on the Shogun is required

--Daimyo spend 50% of their time in residence at Edo; must build Daimyo Residences there;

--this is costly, weakens han financially, as well as administratively.

--also, Sankin-Kotai is coordinated with a hostage system: Daimyo wives and Children remain in Edo when Daimyo returns to han. Incentive to plot or revolt v. Shogun? Not so much.

--Daimyo classified and regulated = an amazing distribution of wealth and power to disincentivize rebellion.

--Introduction of Zhu Xi Neo Confucianism as the basis for Tokugawa Education which took place, of course, in academies for samurai children but also in "temple schools" for merchant and farmer's children.

The Confucian 4-Class system is perfect for Ieyasu's aims:

1. Samurai or shi replace Chinese Scholar official (shih) as the Top class but it is 100% hereditary; No Exam System exists to allow non-samurai to enter officaldom. In fact, there were not enough positions for the large samurai class (6% of total population)--the cuase of considerable tensions.

2. Peasants;

3. Artisans;

4. Merchants

 

Unintended Consequences:

--Sankin Kotai required Roads, Travel, Shipping of Goods up to Edo; Spread of Urbanism and Commerce;

--Osaka becomes staging point and Commercial Center;

--Spread of money economy, credit system, proto- banking;

--Urbanization:

Edo over 1 million;

Osaka and Kyoto at 500,000;

--Nagasaki an International trade Center

--All major metropolitan areas governed by a Shogunal Official

--Sakoku or "Closed Country" Policy ordered 1639: no han is allowed to trade with outside powers;

--This was a way to preserve existing balance of power

--Market Economy grows as in Song China; proto-industrialization;

--Peace, Urbanization, Population Growth demand in cities for foodstuffs and other household goods;

--stimulated increases in Agricultural production;

--like Song dynasty, new strains, new crops, new, improved tools, new agricultural technologies, more lands brought under cultivation;

--farmers specialize and produce for the market;

--see the variety of goods via Guilds handout.

--Education spreads, literacy rates grow to 30-40% of total population. Staggering!

--Terakoya Temple Schools even for farmers children;

--So Japan between 1600-1850 is"feudal" in name only; just in a narrow, political/structural sense;

--it is really a peaceful, urbanized, sophisticated, literate and bureaucratic order with considerable cultural dynamism and intellectual vitality;

--Schools of Thought or Intellectual Currents

--- the orthodox Zhu Xi Neo Confucianism: Rationalism: Invenstigation of Things (Li 理)

High Ethical Standards;

Loyalty to Feudal Authority is central; Confucianism was handy here.

--- School of Ancient Learning (Kogaku 古学)--emphasized pre-Han original Confucian Thought;

--- Wang Yang-ming (王陽明 called Ôyômei in Japanese) philosophy from Ming, China;

It stressed "Intuition" (shin 心) over "Reason" (ri 理); Action over Words; innate knowledge was prized; Zen influence? See textbbok pp. 232-33.

--- School of Native Studies (Kokugaku 国学) study Japan's own history and literature like the Kojiki, the Nihon shoki, and The Tale of Genji; mono no aware.

--- Mito School = a Collateral Tokugawa House of Mito Domain charged with compiling a complete national history of Japan.

Consequently, the Imperial Institution and the "unbroken line" emerge as Japan's unique feature; the term Kokutai (国体)”National Polity” comes into use

--- Dutch Studies (蘭学) OK'd after 1720 when import of Western books allowed; scholars go to Deshima in Nagasaki to learn from the Dutch.

--- Shingaku (心学)or "Heart/Mind" Studies that support Mercantilism;

--- Various Unaffiliated and Unorthodox "Outside the Box" thinkers like:

a. Dazai Shundai--commerce essential to the economy so why not develop the economy? Daimyo should take advantage of this resource, commerce

b. Kaiho Seiryo--don't disparage pursuit of profit; whole world rests on the principle of exchange and profit; Han should pursue profit by exporting local products

c. Yamagato Banto-scholar of Osaka Merchant Academy--urged reformers not to fix prices but let scarce goods go where they are needed

d. Honda Toshiaki urged trade and even overseas colonization!

e. Sato Nobuhiro argues for a strong, centralized state with a Ministry to to direct all economic activities

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--So, despite all the seeming rigidities, there was conisiderable variety and vitality in intellectual life

 

Some things to ponder:

1. How does a warrior class fare when there is no warfare for 250 years? What is their role?

 

 

 

Samurai have to transform themselves into literate administrators..but there are never enough positions to go around. So samurai are often frustrated.

 

--Chinese scholar elite was maybe 1% of popluation; Tokugawa Samurai 6%;

 

2. Samurai are fixed income folks now with their income based on land surveys from the 1580s; so is their standard of living declining?

 

3. Merchants, the least esteemed class by Neo-Confucian standards, become the most wealthy and take the lead in cultural production; e.g.

--Kabuki,

--Puppet Theatre;

--Woodblock prints, landscapes of Hiroshige and Hokusai;

--Prose fiction, Saikaku;

--Poetry, Haiku, Basho;

--So lots of artistic and cultural dynamism

 

 

 

4. But tensions between the Ideal of Confucian Model and Tokugawa Economic Realities persists; Even before Western Powers appear in Japanese waters, many samurai-scholars were questioning just what the nature of the Tokugawa Polity and Society was.

 

For example, Samurai scholar Ogyu Sorai (School of Ancient Learning) criticized the bakufu and the samurai class as a whole for living as if they were staying at an inn. What does this mean?

 

 

 

5. Also, Tokugawa Japan remains a divided or hybrid polity: the Baku-Han system; not ideal for interacting with the international nation-state system of the 1800s as Western Imperialism expands into East Asia.

 

 

6. Since bakufu was intent on preserving the social order and political balance of power, no innovations occur in weaponry or defensive capacity; shipbuilding is restricted so no expansion, no discovery, no development of steamships, cannons, etc.

 

 

7. So by the 1800s Japan is urbanized, peaceful, economically advanced, literate, agricultural production up, the economy is developing and becoming more complex, tnasporation is developed and a national market exists, currency is used, the society is intellectually and culturally vibrant, but kind of "frozen" politically with a rigid social order (4 class system), outdated practices and beliefs, and ill-informed about the larger world.

Yet, on the upside, compared with China, which was so large and spread out, Japan was compact and "wired" or "networked" with transportation routes, movement of samurai and daimyo up and down these roads already for sankin-kotai, urban settings, schools and academies, including fencing or kendo schools, where young samurai gathered and shared ideas;

Samurai were used to communicating and discussing issues amongst themselves, used to questioning the way things are and why, and being that they were military men, many samurai were pragmatic. So Sakuma Zôzan, one who trained in both Neo-Confucianism and Dutch Learning, could come up with the slogan in the 1840s-50s:

"Eastern Values, Western Techniques"

The key here being that Japanese don't have to abandon their core values, just graft superior western knowledge in Science and math, gunnery, shipbuilding, etc., onto the exisitng Confucian philosophy which would remain the "moral" base.

Even 50 years later, China could not get to that same way of thinking! Why do you think?

Brief Timeline:

1853 Perry Arrives with demands for Treaty of Friendship;

1854 1st Treaty signed;

1858 Commercial Treaty signed, trade opened;

1867 Tokugawa Bakufu Falls; Meiji "Restoration" proclaimed as Emperor moved from Kyoto to Edo which is renamed Tokyo

1868 Charter Oath proclaimed:

1. Deliberative assemblies shall be widely established and all matters decided by public discussion.

一 広ク会議ヲ興シ万機公論ニ決スヘシ

2. All classes, high and low, shall unite in vigorously carrying out the administration of affairs of state.

一 上下心ヲ一ニシテ盛ニ経綸ヲ行フヘシ

3. The common people, no less than the civil and military officials, shall each be allowed to pursue his own calling so that there may be no discontent.

一 官武一途庶民ニ至ル迄各其志ヲ遂ケ人心ヲシテ倦マサラシメン事ヲ要ス

4. Evil customs of the past shall be abolished, and everything based upon the just laws of heaven.

一 旧来ノ陋習ヲ破リ天地ノ公道ニ基クヘシ

5. Knowledge shall be sought throughout the world, so as to strengthen the foundations of imperial rule.

一 智識ヲ世界ニ求メ大ニ皇基ヲ振起スヘシ

 

New Government articulated a new policy approach for Japan:

"Rich Country, Strong Military"(富国強兵, Fûkoku-Kyôhei)

= Modern, Scientific Education, Industrial Revolution, Western-style military organization and equipment.

Initiates a series of top-down reforms to create

--a national education system,

-- a conscipt army,

-- a national banking system,

-- a strong centralized government under a monarchy,

-- the elimination of the Daimyo, their Han, and the whole samurai class;

-- the hope is for increased social mobility to engage energies of all the entire nation in the service of a rebuilding and modernization program.

-- selective central government financial support for industries like textiles, shipbuilding, and railroads. Government-funded and initiated "pilot" industries and factories eventually sold very cheaply to entrepreneurs begininng a close government and business relationship.

This is quite the ambitious program and it was more or less successfully implemented over the next 20 years. The results included:

· a highly centralized, modern bureaucratic governmental system;
· a constitution establishing an elected parliament;
· a well-developed transport and communication system;
· a highly educated population free of feudal class restrictions;
· an established and rapidly growing industrial sector based on the latest technology;
· a powerful army and navy.

Pretty soon that would lead to

--two successful international wars against China and Russia (1894-95 and 1904-05 respectively),

--a full-out Industrial Revolution (dating from 1905),

--the creation of an empire with colonies in Taiwan and Korea (1910s-1920s),

--economic and military expansion into Manchuria (1930s),

--an invasion and large-scale war with China from 1937, and eventually

--conflict with Western Hegemonic powers like Great Britain and the U.S. culminating in a disastrous defeat in WWII.

 

Meanwhile, China had experienced its initial encounter with Western Imperialism some 20 years earlier than Japan but still it took China many more decades--maybe 50-60 years, possibly even 70-80 years--to implement its own effective program of political and economic reforms.

 

 

 

 

 

 

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